Zat dan Wujudnya

ZAT

Zat didefinisikan sebagai segala sesuatu yang mempunyai massa dan menempati ruang. Maksud dari menempati ruang disini adalah memiliki volume. Zat secara umum dibagi menjadi tiga antara lain zat padat, zat gas dan zat cair. Tetapi karena didunianya ini sebenarnya pembagian tersebut tidak cukup untuk menggolongkan macam-macam zat. Pembahasan selanjutnya akan dibahas lebih detail pada pelajaran kimia. Pelajaran kimia sendiri akan dibahas di kelas 10 sampai dengan kelas 13

Zat Padat

Benda dikatakan termasuk zat padat bila memiliki ciri-ciri sebagai berikut :

• Jarak antar partikelnya sangat rapat
• Gaya tarik antar partikelnya sangat kuat
• Bentuknya tetap
• Volumenya tetap

Karena gaya tarik antar partikel pada zat padat sangat kuat maka bentuk zat padat cenderung tetap bila tidak ada gaya atau reaksinya yang mempengaruhinya. Contoh zat padat adalah batu, kayu, besi dll.

Z at Cair

Ciri-ciri zat cair adalah sebagai berikut :

• Jarak antar partikelnya agak renggang
• Gaya tarik antar partikelnya agak kuat
• Volumenya tetap
• Bentuknya berubah

Gaya tarik antar partikel zat cair agak kuat artinya lebih lemah dibanding dengan gaya tarik pada partikel zat padat. Agak lemahnya gaya tarik ini mengakibatkan bentuk zat cair dapat berubah-ubah sesuai dengan tempatnya (wadahnya).

Zat Gas

Zat gas mempunyai ciri-ciri sebagai berikut :

• Jarak antar partikelnya sangat renggang
• Gaya tarik antar partikelnya sangat lemah
• Volumenya berubah
• Bentuknya berubah

Lemahnya gaya tarik menarik antar partikel pada zat gas menyababkan bentuk dan volume zat gas selalu berubah sesuai dengan ruang yang ditempatinya. Yang menjadi ciri khas suatu zat sehinggaa dapat membedakan dari satu zat dengan zat lain adalah massa jenis.

MASSA JENIS

Massa jenis adalah perbandingan antara besarnya massa suatu zat dengan volume zat tersebut. Setiap zat mempunyai massa jenis yang berbeda-beda. Massa jenis zat tidak dipengaruhi oleh bentuk benda. Walaupun bentuk benda berbeda-beda selama terbuat dari jenis bahan yang sama maka massa jenis zat tersebut adalah sama. Kadang-kadang massa jenis juga disebut dengan rapat massa.

Untuk menentukan besar massa jenis suatu zat dipergunakan persamaan sebagai berikut :

Gaya Kohesi dan Adhesi

Gaya kohesi adalah gaya tarik menarik antar partikel yang sejenis, sebagai contoh partikel raksa dengan partikel raksa, partikel air dengan partikel air, dll.

Gaya adhesi adalah gaya tarik menarik antar partikel yang tak sejenis, sebagai contoh gaya tarik menarik antar partikel kapur dengan partikel papan tulis, partikel tinta dengan partikel kertas, dll.

Kapilaritas

Adalah peristiwa merembesnya zat cair melalui celah-celah kecil. Kapilaritas disebabkan karena adanya gaya Adhesi antaraa partikel zat cair dengan partikel zat yang lain.

Contoh kapilaritas adalah naiknya minyak pada sumbu kompor, basahnya baju ketika dicuci, dan lain-lain.

Apabila raksa dimasukkan kedalam pipa kapiler maka raksa yang ada pada pipa yang lebih besar akan lebih tinggi dari pada pipa yang lebih kecil, ini disebabkan karena gaya kohesi raksa lebih besar dari pada gaya adhesi raksa dengan partikel pipa kapiler. Sedangkan apabila air dimasukkan kedalam pipa kapiler maka air yang berada pada pipa yang lebih besar akan lebih rendah dari pada pada pipa yang lebih kecil, hal ini disebabkan karena gaya adhesi partikel air dengan partikel pipa kapiler lebih besar dari pada gaya kohesinya. Peristiwa yang terjadi pada raksa tersebut disebut dengan miniskus cembung, dan yang terjadi pada air disebut dengan miniskus cekung.

sumber : alljabbar.wordpress.com

Perbedaan penggunaan “in order to” dengan “in order (that)”

Beberapa pertanyaan yang masuk ke email saya menanyakan perbedaan penggunaan “in order to” dengan “in order (that)“. Tulisan ini mencoba menjawab pertanyaan tersebut.

In order to dan in order (that) sama-sama digunakan untuk mengekspresikan tujuan dan keduanya sama-sama berarti agar atau untuk. Namun demikian, penggunaannya dalam kalimat sangat berbeda.

A. Penggunaan “in order to”

In order to selalu diikuti oleh verb1, seperti terlihat pada formula berikut:

Subject + verb + object + in order to + verb1 + object…
In order to + verb1 + object, subject + verb + object

Contoh:

1. We should study hard in order to pass the exam. (Kita harus belajar keras agar lulus ujian).
2. Many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening in order to avoid traffic jam. (Banyak orang di Jakarta memutuskan untuk pulang kantor agak malam untuk menghindari kemacetan lalu lintas).
3. He works very hard in order to be able to support his family. (Dia bekerja sangat keras agar dapat mensuport keluarganya).

Dengan menggunakan pola pada baris kedua, ketiga kalimat di atas dapat ditulis menjadi:

1. In order to pass the exam, we should study hard . (Agar lulus ujian, kita harus belajar keras ).
2. In order to avoid traffic jam, many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening . (Untuk menghindari kemacetan lalu lintas, banyak orang di Jakarta memutuskan untuk pulang kantor agak malam).
3. In order to be able to support his family, he works very hard . (Agar dapat mensuport keluarganya, dia bekerja sangat keras ).

B. Penggunaan “in order (that)”

In order atau in order that selalu diikuti oleh clause (S + V), seperti terlihat pada formula berikut:
Subject + verb + object + in order (that) + subject + verb1 + object…
In order (that) + subject + verb1 + object, subject + verb + object

Contoh:

1. We should study hard in order we pass the exam. Atau, We should study hard in order that we pass the exam. (Kita harus belajar keras agar kita lulus ujian).
2. Many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening in order they avoid traffic jam. Atau, Many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening in order that they avoid traffic jam. (Banyak orang di Jakarta memutuskan untuk pulang kantor agak malam agar mereka terhindar dari kemacetan lalu lintas).
3. He works very hard in order he is able to support his family. Atau, He works very hard in order that he is able to support his family. (Dia bekerja sangat keras agar dia dapat mensuport keluarganya).

Dengan menggunakan pola pada baris kedua, ketiga kalimat di atas juga dapat ditulis menjadi:

1. In order we pass the exam, we should study hard . Atau, In order that we pass the exam, we should study hard. (Agar kita lulus ujian, kita harus belajar keras).
2. In order they avoid traffic jam, many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening . Atau, In order that they avoid traffic jam, many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening. (Agar mereka terhindar dari kemacetan lalu lintas, banyak orang di Jakarta memutuskan untuk pulang kantor agak malam).
3. In order he is able to support his family, he works very hard . Atau, In order that he is able to support his family, he works very hard . (Agar dia dapat mensuport keluarganya, dia bekerja sangat keras).

C. Penggunaan “in order + for object pronoun/noun + to”

Kedua pola di atas (A & B) dapat dimodifikasi menjadi :
Subject + verb + object + in order + for + object pronoun/noun + to + verb1 + object
In order + for + object pronoun/noun + to + verb1 + object, subject + verb + object

Contoh:

1. We should study hard in order for us to pass the exam. (Kita harus belajar keras agar kita lulus ujian).
2. Many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening in order for them to avoid traffic jam. (Banyak orang di Jakarta memutuskan untuk pulang kantor agak malam agar mereka terhindar dari kemacetan lalu lintas).
3. He works very hard in order for him to be able to support his family. (Dia bekerja sangat keras agar dia dapat mensuport keluarganya).

Dengan menggunakan pola pada baris kedua, ketiga kalimat di atas dapat ditulis menjadi:

1. In order for us to pass the exam, we should study hard . (Agar kita lulus ujian, kita harus belajar keras ).
2. In order for them to avoid traffic jam, many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening . (Agar mereka terhindar dari kemacetan lalu lintas, banyak orang di Jakarta memutuskan untuk pulang kantor agak malam).
3. In order for him to be able to support his family, he works very hard . (Agar dia dapat mensuport keluarganya, dia bekerja sangat keras ).

D. “In order to + verb1″ vs “to + verb1″

Apakah “in order” pada pola A dapat dihilangkan sehingga tinggal infinitive-nya saja?

Ya, bahkan penggunaan infinitive lebih sering digunakan. (Lihat Infinitives dan Penggunaannya).

Contoh:

1. We should study hard to pass the exam. (Kita harus belajar keras agar lulus ujian).
2. Many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening to avoid traffic jam. (Banyak orang di Jakarta memutuskan untuk pulang kantor agak malam untuk menghindari kemacetan lalu lintas).
3. He works very hard to be able to support his family. (Dia bekerja sangat keras agar dapat mensuport keluarganya).

Jika infinitivenya diletakkan di depan, kalimatnya menjadi:

1. To pass the exam, we should study hard . (Agar lulus ujian, kita harus belajar keras ).
2. To avoid traffic jam, many people in Jakarta decide to leave their office late in the evening . (Untuk menghindari kemacetan lalu lintas, banyak orang di Jakarta memutuskan untuk pulang kantor agak malam).
3. To be able to support his family, he works very hard . (Agar dapat mensuport keluarganya, dia bekerja sangat keras ).

So, tidak begitu sulit, bukan? Jika anda ingin tambahan contoh kalimat penggunaan in order to dan in order (that) dapat dibaca di topik Conjunctions dan Penggunaannya.

Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Pola Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense adalah sebagai berikut:

Subject + would + have + been + ( verb1+ing) + object + modifier

Contoh:

1. Farmers in Jati Bali would have been growing rice crops for 40 years by the end of last month. (Petani-petani di Jati Bali akan telah bercocok tanam padi selama 40 tahun sebelum akhir bulan lalu).
2. Some students would have been conducting research on vegetative plant propagations for one year when the semester started last month. (Beberapa siswa akan telah melakukan penelitian pada perbanyakan tanaman vegetatif selama 1 tahun ketika semester dimulai bulan lalu).
3. Transpiration would have been starting to increase for more than an hour when we measured it at 9 a.m. yesterday. (Transpirasi akan telah mulai meningkat selama lebih dari 1 jam ketika kita mengukurnya jam 9 pagi kemarin).

Penggunaan Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Penggunaan past future perfect continuous tense sama dengan penggunaan past future perfect tense kategori yang ketiga, yaitu untuk menyatakan bahwa kejadian/aktivitas akan terus terjadi/dilakukan sampai batas waktu tertentu di masa lampau.

Perhatikan contoh pada past future perfect tense kategori ketiga berikut:

1. I thought I would have been at school only for 6 hours yesterday. In fact, I had to wait for another hour because my dad’s car broke down on the way to the school.
2. I was completely sure that on August 17, I would have lived in this house for 10 years sharp.
3. I expected that I would have slept for 8 hours last night but I was awoken by my neighbor’s long big fight at 1 a.m. It was very loud and I couldn’t fall asleep till morning.
4. It was predicted that when Mr. Dodi retired last month, he would have worked for this company for forty-five years.
5. She never expected that she would have waited for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night.

Dalam past future perfect continuous tense, kelima kalimat ini menjadi:

1. I thought I would have been being at school only for 6 hours yesterday. In fact, I had to wait for another hour because my dad’s car broke down on the way to the school.
2. I was completely sure that on August 17, I would have been living in this house for 10 years sharp.
3. I expected that I would have been sleeping for 8 hours last night but I was awoken by my neighbor’s long big fight at 1 a.m. It was very loud and I couldn’t fall asleep till morning.
4. It was predicted that when Mr. Dodi retired last month, he would have been working for this company for forty-five years.
5. She never expected that she would have been waiting for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night.

Negative Form

Bentuk negatif Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense mengikuti pola berikut:

Subject + would + not + have + been + (verb1+ing) + object + modifier

Contoh:

1. I thought I wouldn’t have been being at school for 7 hours yesterday.
2. I was completely sure that on August 17, I wouldn’t have been living in this house for 10 years yet.
3. I expected that I wouldn’t have been sleeping for 4 hours last night.
4. It was predicted that when Mr. Dodi retired last month, he wouldn’t have been working for this company for fifty years.
5. She expected that she wouldn’t have been waiting for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night.

Yes/No Questions

Yes/No Questions untuk Past Future Perfect Continuous Tense adalah sebagai berikut:

Would + subject + not + have + been + (verb1+ing) + object + modifier?

Contoh:

1. Would you have been being at school for 7 hours yesterday if your dad’s car hadn’t broken down on the way to the school?
2. Would you have been living in this house for 10 years on August 17 if the house rent had been raised by the landlord?.
3. If your neighbor hadn’t had a long big fight last night, would you have been sleeping for 4 hours last night?
4. If Mr. Dodi were still strong, would he have been working for this company for more than fifty years?
5. Did she expect that she would have been waiting for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night?

Past Future Perfect Tense

Past Future Perfect Tense mengikuti pola berikut:

Subject + would + have + verb3 + object + modifier

Contoh:

1. Farmers in Jati Bali would have grown rice crops by the end of last month. (Petani-petani di Jati Bali akan telah bercocok tanam padi sebelum akhir bulan lalu).
2. Some students would have conducted research on vegetative plant propagations for one year when the semester started last month. (Beberapa siswa akan telah melakukan penelitian pada perbanyakan tanaman vegetatif selama 1 tahun ketika semester berikutnya dimulai bulan lalu).
3. Transpiration would have started to increase before we measured it at 9 a.m. yesterday. (Transpirasi akan telah mulai meningkat sebelum kita mengukurnya jam 9 pagi kemarin).

Penggunaan Past Future Perfect Tense

Past future perfect tense pada prinsipnya adalah pengungkapan kembali kejadian/aktivitas yang dinyatakan dengan future perfect tense, yang keterangan waktunya telah bergeser dari future time ke past time. Karena kedua tensis ini mirip, posting ini menggunakan konsep dan contoh-contoh kalimat pada future perfect tense. Perhatikan dan bandingkan perubahan predikat dan keterangan waktunya. Gunakan analogi pada past future tense jika masih bingung. Are you ready? Let’s get started.

Past Future Perfect Tense digunakan:

1. Untuk menyatakan kembali kejadian/aktivitas yang pernah diprediksi atau direncanakan akan sudah terjadi/sudah selesai dilakukan sebelum atau hingga batas waktu tertentu di masa lampau.

Note: Pada umumnya, tensis ini diawali oleh clause yang mengandung makna prediksi, ekspektasi atau rencana. Verbs yang digunakan antara lain: think, hope, expect, plan, intend, assume, etc.

Contoh:

1. I predicted that by 3 p.m. yesterday, I would have finished reading this book. (Saya berharap bahwa sebelum jam 3 sore kemarin, saya akan sudah selesai membaca buku ini).
2. I thought Barcelona would have scored three goals when the first half was over. Because its opponent was tough, however, it didn’t score even a single goal. (Saya kira Barcelona akan telah cetak 3 goal ketika babak pertama berakhir. Namun karena lawannya tangguh, Barcelona bahkan tidak cetak goal sama sekali).
3. Because of the terrible traffic we knew that dad’s plane would have already arrived by the time we got to the airport yesterday.
4. My dad planned that he would have been home when my mom gave birth last month. He didn’t make it though because he had an immigration documentation problem.
5. I thought I would have already fallen asleep by the time Joni got home last night. I don’t know why I was still awake when he did.

Note: Jika pada future perfect tense, time clause dinyatakan dalam simple present tense, pada tensis ini dinyatakan dengan simple past tense. Misalnya: when the first half was over (pada contoh 2), by the time we got to the airport (pada contoh 3), etc.

2. Untuk menyatakan kembali kegiatan/aktivitas yang pernah diprediksi atau direncanakan akan sudah terjadi/sudah selesai dilakukan sebelum kejadian/aktivitas yang lain di masa lampau. Note: Dalam kategori ini, kedua aktivitas dilakukan oleh subject yang sama. Coba bandingkan dengan past perfect tense kategori kedua!

Contoh:

1. I assumed that John would have traveled around the world before he got married last year.
2. She thought that she would have read the entire book before she went to campus yesterday afternoon.
3. I predicted that I would already have had enough time to eat before I played badminton last night.
4. They thought he would have already bought a gift before he went to his girlfriend’s birthday party last night.
5. I once predicted that he would have had more than 50 wives before he died. I was wrong. He turned out to be a very loving husband long time before he died last week.

Note: already bisa ditempatkan setelah would atau setelah have.

3. Untuk menyatakan kembali bahwa kejadian/aktivitas akan terus terjadi/dilakukan sampai batas waktu tertentu di masa lampau.

Contoh:

1. I thought I would have been at school only for 6 hours yesterday. In fact, I had to wait for another hour because my dad’s car broke down on the way to the school.
2. I was completely sure that on August 17, I would have lived in this house for 10 years sharp.
3. I expected that I would have slept for 8 hours last night but I was awoken by my neighbor’s long big fight at 1 a.m. It was very loud and I couldn’t fall asleep till morning.
4. It was predicted that when Mr. Dodi retired last month, he would have worked for this company for forty-five years.
5. She never expected that she would have waited for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night.

4. Untuk membuat main clause unreal conditionals tipe 2, yaitu jika faktanya dalam past future tense atau simple past tense.

Contoh:

1. If you had told me about the today’s exam, I would have studied hard last night. (Jika kamu kasi tahu saya bahwa akan ada ujian hari ini, saya akan telah belajar keras tadi malam).
2. If you had not passed the English I, you would not have been allowed to take the English II. (Jika kamu belum lulus bahasa Inggris I, kamu tidak akan diijinkan untuk mengambil matakulian bahasa Inggris II ini).
3. He wouldn’t have got an accident, if he had not driven fast. (Dia tidak akan telah mengalami kecelakaan, jika dia tidak ngebut).
4. If my parents hadn’t got divorced, I would’ve been much happier. (Jika orang tua saya tidak bercerai, saya akan jauh lebih bahagia).
5. If I hadn’t got a scholarship, I wouldn’t have been able to afford the school expenses. (Jika saya tidak dapat beasiswa, saya tidak akan mampu membayar biaya-biaya sekolah).

Negative Form

Bentuk negatif Past Future Perfect Tense mengikuti pola berikut:

Subject + would + not + have + verb3 + object + modifier

Contoh:

1. Because of its thickness, I knew that I would not have finished reading it by 3 p.m. yesterday.
2. I never thought that Barcelona wouldn’t have scored even a single goal when the first half was over.
3. We expected that dad’s plane wouldn’t have arrived yet by the time we got to the air port yesterday. But we were late because the traffic was so terrible.
4. Because of an immigration documentation problem, my dad knew that he wouldn’t have been home when my mom gave birth last month.
5. I hoped that when Joni arrived home last night, I would not have fallen asleep yet.
6. I assumed that John wouldn’t have traveled around the world before he got married last year.
7. She thought that she wouldn’t have read the entire book before she went to campus yesterday afternoon.
8. I predicted that I wouldn’t have had enough time to eat before I played badminton last night.
9. They thought he wouldn’t have bought a gift before he went to his girlfriend’s birthday party last night.
10. I once predicted that he wouldn’t have had more than 50 wives before he died.
11. I thought I wouldn’t have been at school for 7 hours yesterday.
12. I was completely sure that on August 17, I wouldn’t have lived in this house for 10 years yet.
13. I expected that I wouldn’t have slept for 4 hours last night.
14. It was predicted that when Mr. Dodi retired last month, he wouldn’t have worked for this company for fifty years.
15. She expected that she wouldn’t have waited for her boyfriend for 2 hours last night.

Yes/No Questions

Yes/No Questions untuk Past Future Perfect Tense adalah sebagai berikut:

Would + subject + have + verb3 + object + modifier?

Contoh:

1. If I had told you about the today’s exam, would you have studied hard last night? (Jika saya telah beri tahu kamu bahwa ada ujian hari ini, apakah kamu akan telah belajar keras tadi malam?)
2. Would you have been allowed to take the English II if you had not passed the English I?
3. Would he have got an accident if he had not driven fast?
4. If your parents hadn’t got divorced, would you have been much happier?
5. If you hadn’t got a scholarship, would you have been able to afford the school expenses?
6. Would you have finished reading this book by 3 p.m. yesterday if it were thinner?
7. Would Barcelona have scored three goals when the first half was over if its opponent had been Indonesian team?
8. If the traffic hadn’t been terrible, would dad’s plane have arrived after you got to the airport?
9. Would he have been home when your mom gave birth last month if he hadn’t had an immigration documentation problem?
10. Would you have fallen asleep by the time Joni got home last night if you had taken a sleeping pill? Dan seterusnya.

Note: Kalimat tanya dari tensis ini pada umumnya berupa conditional sentence seperti terlihat pada contoh-contoh di atas. Sekarang, coba bandingkan dengan cara berikut:

1. Did you assume that John would have traveled around the world before he got married last year?
2. Did you predict that she would have read the entire book before she went to campus yesterday afternoon?
3. Did I predict that I wouldn’t have had enough time to eat before I played badminton last night?
4. Did they think that he would have bought a gift before he went to his girlfriend’s birthday party last night?
5. Did you predict that he would have had more than 50 wives before he died?